Processing a Series of Items with Iterators
The iterator pattern allows you to perform some task on a sequence of items in turn. An iterator is responsible for the logic of iterating over each item and determining when the sequence has finished. When you use iterators, you don't have to reimplement that logic yourself.
In Rust, iterators are lazy, meaning they have no effect until you call
methods that consume the iterator to use it up. For example, the code in
Listing 13-10 creates an iterator over the items in the vector v1 by calling
the iter method defined on Vec<T>. This code by itself doesn't do anything
useful.
fn main() { let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3]; let v1_iter = v1.iter(); }
Listing 13-10: Creating an iterator
The iterator is stored in the v1_iter variable. Once we've created an
iterator, we can use it in a variety of ways. In Listing 3-5 in Chapter 3, we
iterated over an array using a for loop to execute some code on each of its
items. Under the hood this implicitly created and then consumed an iterator,
but we glossed over how exactly that works until now.
In the example in Listing 13-11, we separate the creation of the iterator from
the use of the iterator in the for loop. When the for loop is called using
the iterator in v1_iter, each element in the iterator is used in one
iteration of the loop, which prints out each value.
fn main() { let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3]; let v1_iter = v1.iter(); for val in v1_iter { println!("Got: {val}"); } }
Listing 13-11: Using an iterator in a for loop
In languages that don't have iterators provided by their standard libraries, you would likely write this same functionality by starting a variable at index 0, using that variable to index into the vector to get a value, and incrementing the variable value in a loop until it reached the total number of items in the vector.
Iterators handle all that logic for you, cutting down on repetitive code you could potentially mess up. Iterators give you more flexibility to use the same logic with many different kinds of sequences, not just data structures you can index into, like vectors. Let's examine how iterators do that.
The Iterator Trait and the next Method
All iterators implement a trait named Iterator that is defined in the
standard library. The definition of the trait looks like this:
#![allow(unused)] fn main() { pub trait Iterator { type Item; fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>; // methods with default implementations elided } }
Notice this definition uses some new syntax: type Item and Self::Item,
which are defining an associated type with this trait. We'll talk about
associated types in depth in Chapter 19. For now, all you need to know is that
this code says implementing the Iterator trait requires that you also define
an Item type, and this Item type is used in the return type of the next
method. In other words, the Item type will be the type returned from the
iterator.
The Iterator trait only requires implementors to define one method: the
next method, which returns one item of the iterator at a time wrapped in
Some and, when iteration is over, returns None.
We can call the next method on iterators directly; Listing 13-12 demonstrates
what values are returned from repeated calls to next on the iterator created
from the vector.
Filename: src/lib.rs
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn iterator_demonstration() {
let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3];
let mut v1_iter = v1.iter();
assert_eq!(v1_iter.next(), Some(&1));
assert_eq!(v1_iter.next(), Some(&2));
assert_eq!(v1_iter.next(), Some(&3));
assert_eq!(v1_iter.next(), None);
}
}Listing 13-12: Calling the next method on an
iterator
Note that we needed to make v1_iter mutable: calling the next method on an
iterator changes internal state that the iterator uses to keep track of where
it is in the sequence. In other words, this code consumes, or uses up, the
iterator. Each call to next eats up an item from the iterator. We didn't need
to make v1_iter mutable when we used a for loop because the loop took
ownership of v1_iter and made it mutable behind the scenes.
Also note that the values we get from the calls to next are immutable
references to the values in the vector. The iter method produces an iterator
over immutable references. If we want to create an iterator that takes
ownership of v1 and returns owned values, we can call into_iter instead of
iter. Similarly, if we want to iterate over mutable references, we can call
iter_mut instead of iter.
Methods that Consume the Iterator
The Iterator trait has a number of different methods with default
implementations provided by the standard library; you can find out about these
methods by looking in the standard library API documentation for the Iterator
trait. Some of these methods call the next method in their definition, which
is why you're required to implement the next method when implementing the
Iterator trait.
Methods that call next are called consuming adaptors, because calling them
uses up the iterator. One example is the sum method, which takes ownership of
the iterator and iterates through the items by repeatedly calling next, thus
consuming the iterator. As it iterates through, it adds each item to a running
total and returns the total when iteration is complete. Listing 13-13 has a
test illustrating a use of the sum method:
Filename: src/lib.rs
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn iterator_sum() {
let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3];
let v1_iter = v1.iter();
let total: i32 = v1_iter.sum();
assert_eq!(total, 6);
}
}Listing 13-13: Calling the sum method to get the total
of all items in the iterator
We aren't allowed to use v1_iter after the call to sum because sum takes
ownership of the iterator we call it on.
Methods that Produce Other Iterators
Iterator adaptors are methods defined on the Iterator trait that don't
consume the iterator. Instead, they produce different iterators by changing
some aspect of the original iterator.
Listing 13-14 shows an example of calling the iterator adaptor method map,
which takes a closure to call on each item as the items are iterated through.
The map method returns a new iterator that produces the modified items. The
closure here creates a new iterator in which each item from the vector will be
incremented by 1:
Filename: src/main.rs
fn main() { let v1: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1); }
Listing 13-14: Calling the iterator adaptor map to
create a new iterator
However, this code produces a warning:
$ cargo run
Compiling iterators v0.1.0 (file:///projects/iterators)
warning: unused `Map` that must be used
--> src/main.rs:4:5
|
4 | v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1);
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
|
= note: iterators are lazy and do nothing unless consumed
= note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default
help: use `let _ = ...` to ignore the resulting value
|
4 | let _ = v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1);
| +++++++
warning: `iterators` (bin "iterators") generated 1 warning
Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.47s
Running `target/debug/iterators`
The code in Listing 13-14 doesn't do anything; the closure we've specified never gets called. The warning reminds us why: iterator adaptors are lazy, and we need to consume the iterator here.
To fix this warning and consume the iterator, we'll use the collect method,
which we used in Chapter 12 with env::args in Listing 12-1. This method
consumes the iterator and collects the resulting values into a collection data
type.
In Listing 13-15, we collect the results of iterating over the iterator that's
returned from the call to map into a vector. This vector will end up
containing each item from the original vector incremented by 1.
Filename: src/main.rs
fn main() { let v1: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; let v2: Vec<_> = v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1).collect(); assert_eq!(v2, vec![2, 3, 4]); }
Listing 13-15: Calling the map method to create a new
iterator and then calling the collect method to consume the new iterator and
create a vector
Because map takes a closure, we can specify any operation we want to perform
on each item. This is a great example of how closures let you customize some
behavior while reusing the iteration behavior that the Iterator trait
provides.
You can chain multiple calls to iterator adaptors to perform complex actions in a readable way. But because all iterators are lazy, you have to call one of the consuming adaptor methods to get results from calls to iterator adaptors.
Using Closures that Capture Their Environment
Many iterator adapters take closures as arguments, and commonly the closures we'll specify as arguments to iterator adapters will be closures that capture their environment.
For this example, we'll use the filter method that takes a closure. The
closure gets an item from the iterator and returns a bool. If the closure
returns true, the value will be included in the iteration produced by
filter. If the closure returns false, the value won't be included.
In Listing 13-16, we use filter with a closure that captures the shoe_size
variable from its environment to iterate over a collection of Shoe struct
instances. It will return only shoes that are the specified size.
Filename: src/lib.rs
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
struct Shoe {
size: u32,
style: String,
}
fn shoes_in_size(shoes: Vec<Shoe>, shoe_size: u32) -> Vec<Shoe> {
shoes.into_iter().filter(|s| s.size == shoe_size).collect()
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn filters_by_size() {
let shoes = vec![
Shoe {
size: 10,
style: String::from("sneaker"),
},
Shoe {
size: 13,
style: String::from("sandal"),
},
Shoe {
size: 10,
style: String::from("boot"),
},
];
let in_my_size = shoes_in_size(shoes, 10);
assert_eq!(
in_my_size,
vec![
Shoe {
size: 10,
style: String::from("sneaker")
},
Shoe {
size: 10,
style: String::from("boot")
},
]
);
}
}Listing 13-16: Using the filter method with a closure
that captures shoe_size
The shoes_in_size function takes ownership of a vector of shoes and a shoe
size as parameters. It returns a vector containing only shoes of the specified
size.
In the body of shoes_in_size, we call into_iter to create an iterator
that takes ownership of the vector. Then we call filter to adapt that
iterator into a new iterator that only contains elements for which the closure
returns true.
The closure captures the shoe_size parameter from the environment and
compares the value with each shoe's size, keeping only shoes of the size
specified. Finally, calling collect gathers the values returned by the
adapted iterator into a vector that's returned by the function.
The test shows that when we call shoes_in_size, we get back only shoes
that have the same size as the value we specified.